Emily Sheperd Theory Review

Theory Review

Emily Sheperd
Ball State University

Table 1. Student name and comments

Name	Commented On
Emily Sheperd	Byron Ballard

Introduction

            How an individual learns is influenced by their self-system which is comprised of the self-concept, self-esteem, self-ideal, and body image (MacKeracher, 2004). The self-system can grow and develop along two paths, autonomous or relational (MacKeracher, 2004). Those with an autonomous self-system see themselves as separate from others where as those with a relational self-system see themselves as connected to others (MacKeracher, 2004). These systems are gender-related, with men typically leaning towards autonomous self-systems and women towards relational self-systems, however an individual can utilize either system regardless of gender; interestingly, most individuals will utilize both systems to create their own unique hybrid, but a small amount of people do use only one system exclusively (MacKeracher, 2004).

            Research examining these two types of self-systems is similar to research examining ways of knowing that typify women (MacKeracher, 2004). As the self-system outlines how a person thinks, feels, and perceive the world, by understanding the self-systems and in turn the ways of knowing, it is possible to infer how an individual will best engage in learning (MacKeracher, 2004).  There are many ways of knowing, and each uses a specific process; examples of this include narrative, spiritual, and physical ways of knowing (MacKeracher, 2004). As spiritual learning examines the spiritual ways of knowing, relationships in learning examines the ways of knowing that are influenced by autonomous and relational self-systems, which can be understood using women’s way of knowing (MacKeracher, 2004)

Major Theoretical Points

Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule (1986) lead the research on women’s way of knowing by investigating Perry’s 1970 model of intellectual development that focused exclusively on university men to see if the results were also applicable for women. While the male-focused research was not contradictory to their own discoveries, Belenky et al. (1986) identified Five Stages of Knowing that are specific to relational learners: silence, received knowledge, subjective knowledge, procedural knowledge, and constructed knowledge. By examining the Five Stages of Knowing, five major theoretical points arise that can be used to better understand adult learning. These points are voice and silence; the role of personal experience; sources of knowledge; procedures for knowing and learning; and constructed knowing.

Voice and Silence

            The voice can be used to describe forms of knowing and attitudes individuals have towards themselves (Belenky et al., 1986). The inner voice is what an individual knows and thinks, where as the outer voice is both what an individual thinks others are saying to them and it is the voice one uses in communicating with others (Belenky et al., 1986) When a learner has both positive inner and outer voices, they are empowered with a strong sense of self-efficacy (MacKeracher, 2004). When an individual has negative inner and outer voices, they typically view themselves as dumb and powerless; these learners are silenced (Belenky et al., 1986; Gallos, 1995). While a learner with a voice can communicate, interact with the material and others, and succeed in the classroom, the silent learner tends to be a poor learner that will not thrive until they regain their ability to communicate (MacKeracher, 2004). This is important because educators who can identify silenced learners can help them regain their voice so that the learner can thrive in the classroom.

Sources of Knowledge

            Sources of knowledge refer to Belenky et al.’s received knowledge and subjective knowledge (MacKeracher, 2004). Received knowledge come from external sources like family members and friends in articulated words whereas subjective knowledge comes from internal sources like experiences and intuitions and is unarticulated (Belenky et al., 1986; MacKeracher, 2004). Relying on just one of these is often problematic because an individual who relies solely on received knowledge may have difficulty sharing their own opinions on subjects whereas an individual who relies only on subjective knowledge may have difficulty adjusting ideas to anything other than what they believe (MacKeracher, 2004). Educators who are aware of this can help their learners mature by teaching them how to give words to their subjective knowledge and check it against reality, use personal experience and reality to check and assess received knowledge, and integrate both knowledges into useful information (MacKeracher, 2004).

Procedures for Knowing and Learning

            This section falls in line with Belenky et al.’s (1986) procedural knowledge which is comprised of connected knowing and separate knowing. Procedural knowledge is how students utilize rational thinking to solve problems; the learner uses separate and/or connected knowing to examine received and subjective knowledge (Belenky et al., 1986). Separate knowing aims to be objective whereas connected knowing is empathetic (Belenky et al., 1986). Educators who can teach learners to utilize both separate and connected knowing will shape students who are ‘the voice of reason’, are eloquent, listen well, communicate effectively, and are strong learners (MacKeracher, 2004).

Constructed Knowing

            Constructed knowing occurs when a learner is able to effectively integrate both sources of knowledge (subjective knowledge and received knowledge) and both procedures for learning and knowing (connected knowing and separate knowing) into their learning process (Belenky et al. 1986). These integrated learners are confident, able to be an authoritative source of knowledge, and can work well alone or with others (MacKeracher, 2004). Educators who can guide students to this point with have students that thrive in the classroom; these students will also be leaders who can help others thrive (MacKeracher, 2004).

The Role of Personal Experience

            Learners become more efficient and effective when they are able to use more ways of knowing (MacKeracher, 2004). However, personal experience shapes how a learner views authoritative sources, how they trust their own experiences and opinions, and even how they view words. If a learner views words as weapons, they will be silenced; if they cannot trust others, they will struggle to use connected knowing (Gallos, 1995). Certain personal experiences can make it difficult for learners to utilize all fives ways of knowing (Gallos, 1995; MacKeracher, 2004). Educators who are aware of learners’ personal experiences can help identify blocks, and assist them in moving forward, growing, and maturing to constructed knowing (Gallos, 1995).

Application of Theory

            The above themes are the major concepts from learning in relationships as understood through Belenky et al.’s (1986) Women’s Ways of Knowing research. While relational learning tends to be considered how a woman learns, it is important to remember two things: 1) most learners, including men, use a combination of autonomous and relational learning, and 2) autonomous learners can thrive in a relational learner setting where as relational learners face many roadblocks when trying to learn in an autonomous learning situation (MacKeracher, 2004). For this reason, example steps are outlined below that an educator can use to create a relational learner environment; these steps are an application of the concepts identified above. 

An educator cannot easily control or change the inner voice of a learner without first establishing a trusting relationship and investing time in the individual learner; however, the educator can control their word choice which is part of the outer voice of many learners; Zuga (1999) highlights the power of words and the importance of utilizing inclusive language in the classroom. Educators in the STEM field who choose to say women are welcome and wanted here combat other negative outer voices female learners may be hearing (Zuga, 1999). Similarly, Gallos (1995) shares the importance of assuring students that they can succeed in their field and reminding them that there are resources available to help them succeed. The educator’s positive outer voice can remove both alienation and self-doubt for learners (Gallos, 1995).

Learners need to be able to utilize both received and subjective knowledge; in both cases of knowledge, the learners need to be able to assess the knowledge against reality (MacKeracher, 2004). This is part of the maturing process. It is very easy to imagine a young person who shares a controversial viewpoint and when asked why they think that they respond “well that’s what my parent says” or may not even be able to verbalize the why; neither of those are acceptable responses for an adult learner. Educators should encourage opinions in their courses, but they must also ensure that they challenge those opinions asking the student to back it up with reputable facts and sources (Nelms & Lane, 1999). Additionally, it is important that educators ensure their students know how to examine bias in their sources (Nelms & Lane, 1999).

            Learners need to be able to use separate knowing or connected knowing or both depending on the situation (Nelms & Lane, 1999).  For example, a member of a medical team will need to be able to use separate knowing to search objectively for the truth of what is causing the issues the patient has, but also must use connected knowing to work collaboratively with the team and the patient. Educators can utilize problem-solving group projects that force learners to work collaboratively to find a truth to solve the problem can be used to grow both of these knowings (Nelms & Lane, 1999).  

            Belenky et al. (1986) describe those who are constructed knowers as mature. Educators should want their learners to be able to utilize constructed knowing because it means they are able to critically examine all sources of knowledge. Individuals striving for this level of knowing should already be somewhat adapt with sources of knowledge and procedures for knowing and learning. Educators can encourage students to move from novice to expert in those categories and in turn become constructed knowers through complex problem-solving activities with real-world application like service-learning projects. Service-learning activities that require learners to take in a variety of sources of knowledge, examine for truth and bias, and process to find the best solutions while still working collaboratively with other students and the community organization will push the student to grow in all areas.

            Finally, personal experiences can lead learners to be silent or struggle. Changes in language can again change this, but in a different way. In an introductory course for example, the educator may assume students have a certain amount of background; however if the examples given are not universal, they may not be helpful to certain students (Zuga, 1999). This can lead to feelings of alienation (Zuga, 1999; Gallos, 1995). Examples are important, but be sure to fill in with additional context. It is also important to build a trusting educator-learner relationship because if a learner seems to struggle with certain aspects of the course, the educator can rely on this relationship to guide students to success even if the student is not comfortable sharing their history.

Reflection

Highlights

            The highlights to me of utilizing this theory to enhance the classroom is that is works well for students that are both autonomous and relational. It moves away from the assumption that learning is just a cold memorization of facts towards an idea that learning is about not only an understand of a subject but development of the learner.

Process

            In completing this paper, I used my typical linear approach of beginning with a starting source to get a big picture idea, finding relevant articles based off of keywords, highlighting the main points, and categorizing the important information. I then wrote the paper following the proposed outline from the professor and feedback I received from the professor on a separate paper in a different class.

	Major Theoretical Points	Application
Idea 1: Voice and Silence	Learners have an inner and outer voice. Those with positive inner and outer voice are empowered; those with negative inner and outer voice may eventually become silent and unable to interact with the material or communicate with the educator.	Educators word choice shapes the learner’s outer voice. Utilize inclusive, positive words to encourage learners to persevere and ensure they know they are welcome.
Idea 2: Sources of Knowledge	Knowledge can be received or subjective. Received knowledge comes from outside sources. Subjective knowledge comes from learners’ experiences and intuition.	Educators need learners to use both types of knowledge and be able to assess the knowledge against reality. Encourage learners to share opinions and ideas in the classroom but challenge them to back up their opinion with reputable sources and facts.
Idea 3: Procedures for Knowing and Learning	Procedural knowledge is similar to critical thinking and problem solving. It is composed of separate knowing which is objective and searches for the only truth and connected knowing which is empathetic and allows people to disagree on the truth.	Learners need to be able to use both sets of knowing to succeed in the world. Encourage them to practice both through problem-based group work which requires maintaining a relationship but also seeking out the truth to solve the problem.
Idea 4: Constructed Knowing	Constructed knowing is the mature learner who is able to integrate sources of knowledge and procedures for knowing and learning to think critically and solve problem. An individual who can use constructed knowing can thrive in autonomous or relational settings.	Educators can challenge learners to reach this point through complex service-learning projects. These projects challenge learners to examine a variety of sources of knowledge, search through numerous solutions for best one, and work collaboratively with peers and community partners.
Idea 5: Role of Personal Experience	Negative personal experience may prevent a learner from being able to utilize all of the ways of the knowing and be successful in constructed knowing.	Nurture a trusting educator-learner relationship to help learners identify blocks caused by personal experience, move forward, and grow. The same exercises that identify struggles can be used to help the student move past the struggle with educator support.

References

Belenky, M.F., Clinchy, B.M., Goldberger, N.R., & Tarule, J.M. (1986). Women’s ways of knowing: The development of self, voice and mind. New York: Basic Books.

Gallos, J. V. (1995). Gender and silence: Implications of Women’s Ways of Knowing. College Teaching, 43(3), 101-105. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27558720

MacKeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult learning (2^nd ed.). Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press.

Nelms, T. P. & Lane, E. B. (1999). Women’s ways of knowing in nursing and critical thinking. Journal of Professional Nursing, 15(3), 179-186. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10377627

Zuga, K. F. (1999). Addressing women’s ways of knowing to improve the technology education environment for all students. Journal of Technology Education, 10(2), 57-71. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ583102